Ethics in The Criminal Justice Profession Essay example -- Morality/Et

Ethics or being ethical is simply based on a person’s capability to choose what is right or wrong or good or bad. Ethics can be defined as the body of moral principles or values governing or distinctive of a particular culture or group. (Banks C. , 2009). Ethics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the study of questions of right and wrong and how we ought to live our lives; A system of moral principles (Banks C. , 2009). Over all, morality rests squarely on the shoulders one’s early social environment. Ethics or being ethical in any business is very important. Business ethics, especially in retail, usually means three things, avoid breaking criminal law and labor laws, avoid action that may result in civil law suits against the company and avoid actions that are bad for the company image. Businesses are especially concerned with these three things given that it involves loss of money and company reputation. In theory, a business could address these concerns by assigning corporate attorneys and public relations experts to supervise employees on their daily activities. Because at anytime an employee might stray from acceptable conduct, the experts would be there to guide them back. Obviously, this solution would be a financial disaster if practiced. Given that it would cost a company more in attorney and public relations fees, companies save more by having preventative procedures in place. Consequently, companies have established special task forces or special departments to combat company from losses that it more cost effective. Such as, loss prevention agents or specialists, security guards and or special police, etc., to help prevent â€Å"shrinkage†. There are many major issues concerning criminal justice. These major issues ... ...ears, it is has come to light that some criminal justice professionals (decision makers) have sometimes fell short of making the â€Å"right† choices, or have deliberately acted unethically in carrying out their duties (Banks, 2009). Being ethical whether it’s in criminal justice or loss prevention it all has to do with making the right decisions to better the company or job. Works Cited Banks, C. (2009). Criminal Justice; Theory and Practice, 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications Inc.,. Grant, K. J. (2002, December). Ethics and Law Enforcement. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin , pp. 11-14. Kleinig, J. (2008). Ethics and Criminal Justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Less, R. D. (2008). Corperate Governance . Retrieved 03 15, 2012, from Code of Business Conduct and Ethics: http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=64847&p=irol-govHighlights

Carbohydrate and Peptide †Based Vaccines: The Way Forward

Abstract Existing treatments and therapies have supported a huge variety of diseases and infections, a significant example being antibiotics. However the increasing presence of multi-resistant bacteria, as well as increased changes observed in the mechanisms responsible for variation in viruses, involving accumulation of mutations within the genes that code for antibody-binding sites (known as antigenic drift), has resulted in these new strains not being inhibited as effectively by those treatments that originally targeted them (Reche, Fernandez-Caldas, Flower, Fridkis-Hareli and Hoshino, 2014). The knock-on effect has been that the bacteria or virus is able to spread more easily, and therapeutic treatments (used after a person contracts a disease), become less effective, unable to work by boosting the host’s own immune system. As a result, it has been recognised that the vaccine offers the advantage of preventing the anticipation of disease occurrence, using advance action to countera ct infection and chronic illness. Prophylactic, and to a lesser extent therapeutic, vaccines are the most cost-effective and efficient alternative to other treatments and prevention of infectious and chronic diseases. They work by causing changes to the T- and B-cells of the adaptive immune system to eliminate or prevent pathogen growth (Plotkin, Orenstein, and Offit, 2013). Going back to the introduction of vaccines more than 200 years ago, these were initially composed of killed pathogens, which although successful, also caused unacceptably high levels of adverse reactions. During the years of research that have since followed, as with the changes observed with antibiotics and other treatments becoming less effective, the need for safer and more effective vaccines has also been acknowledged. In addition, an improved understanding of antigen presentation and subsequent recognition has supported the development of newer vaccine types (Flower, 2013). Equally, whilst many diseases and infections are controlled by vaccines, for some, no vaccines have been developed, including Streptococcus pyogenes, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) (Wang and Walfield, 2005; Barrett and Stanberry, 2009). Efforts to develop new vaccines are discussed in more details, with a focus on peptide-based and carbohydrate-based vaccines. Challenges are also discussed, leading to a summary of the potential direction of vaccination and research, which describes a promising future. Peptide-based vaccines An example of a newer category of vaccine is peptide-based vaccines. Peptides are short sequences of proteins, and diseases/infections use these proteins as part of their attack on the immune system. In many cases, the immune system has the ability to recognise the proteins associated with an attack by disease or infectious causing pathogens and can respond effectively. However as observed with many cancers, HIV, HCV and other conditions, an effective immune response is not triggered, hence the need for newer vaccine developments including those based on peptides, which encompass single proteins or synthetic peptides encompassing many antigenic determinants (B- and T-cell epitopes) (Flower, 2013). Peptide vaccines are a type of subunit vaccine, which presents an antigen to the immune system, using the peptide of the original pathogen, supporting immunity. Such peptide-based vaccines avoid the adverse effects described with traditional whole-organism vaccines (Moisa and Kolesanova, 20 12) with additional benefits also noted (Ben-Yedidia and Arnon, 1997), including: The absence of infectious material An immune response that is specific, focusing only on the targeted epitope, with the induction of site-specific antibodies No risk of an immune attack or cross-reactivity with the host tissues Flexibility, with an ability to modify products accordingly Improved effectiveness in relation to manufacturing on a large scale, and long-term storage where necessary e.g. a pandemic. However, a number of difficulties have been encountered during the development of such vaccines (Simerska, Moyle and Toth, 2011; Dudek, Perlmutter, Aguilar, Croft and Purcell, 2010) including: A short biological activity of peptides due to degradation by enzymes The trigger of a weak immune response when used alone i.e. single peptides Finding optimal delivery systems. As a result, and to overcome the difficulties mentioned above, synthetic peptide vaccines have been developed, on the basis that a greater more accurately targeted immune response will be achieved. Peptide antigens are not immunogenic by themselves, so this has led to investigations into co-administration of subunit peptide antigens with adjuvants (immunostimulants) to increase the peptide-induced responses to corresponding antigens. Appropriate delivery systems and often toxic adjuvants have demonstrated effective immunity, however, although many adjuvants are described in the literature, only a few have been approved for use with vaccines for delivery in humans due to their toxicity and include water/oil emulsions, liposomes, and bacterial lipophilic compounds to offer a few examples (Heegaard et. al., 2010). Incomplete Freund’s adjuvant (IFA) and Montanide ISA (both oil-based) have been used in clinical trials. Focusing on liposomes as another example, researchers have demo nstrated that use of lipid core peptide (LCP) technology (lipidation of peptides) improves the effectiveness of a self-adjuvanting vaccine delivery system, targeting a specific disease and triggering an effective immune response. This system provides a promising platform for human vaccine development (Zhong, Skwarczynski and Toth, 2009; Moyle and Toth, 2008). In animal models, peptide vaccines have been effective in generating the required immune response, and during recent years, peptide-based vaccines have advanced from animal models and pre-clinical studies, to human clinical trials (Yang et al., 2001). Although currently, all known peptide vaccines under development for humans remain at the stage of clinical trials, these trials should build on the promising evidence resulting from research to date of the potential application of vaccine candidates based on a LCP system, as well as other strategies. Prevention of not only many infectious diseases including hepatitis C virus, mal aria, human immunodeficiency virus and group A streptococci), but also for cancer immunotherapy and improved allergen specific tolerance, remains an exciting, and very real possibility. Carbohydrate-based vaccines The development of vaccines based on carbohydrates not only has quite a history, but is also an area that is fast moving in the current research world. The literature provides evidence as far back as the early 1900s where researchers discovered a connection between type-specific polysaccharides and the induction of antibodies being developed against certain types of pneumococci (Francis and Tillett, 1930). This was confirmed by evidence of pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides being used as vaccines, providing effective and long lasting immunity (Heidelberger, Dilapi, Siegel and Walter, 1950). However despite these early findings, the discovery and success of other treatments such as antibiotics and chemotherapeutics led to this area of research being put on hold. As mentioned earlier however, due to increased resistance to existing treatments such as antibiotics, coupled with the recognition for a need of newer treatments including improved vaccines, renewed interest into preventive vaccines has resulted in novel approaches, which include carbohydrate vaccines. Vaccines are commonly made from weakened pathogens, or, as we now know, other approaches also use immunogenic proteins or polysaccharides. Carbohydrates have been the centre of attention in the research field of vaccination because not only do they exhibit more stability than proteins, but they have roles in both physiology and pathophysiology, including cell interaction and signalling, inflammation, pathogen host adhesion/recognition, to name a few examples (Doshi, Shanbhag, Aggarwal, Shahare and Martis, 2011). During the last ten years or so, they have been used as adjuvants, as carriers for protein antigens to aid immunotherapy, and as targets for vaccines against bacteria. Additionally, as observed with DNA and proteins, carbohydrates are now recognised as biopolymers also, playing a role in many molecular and biological activities (Doshi et. al., 2011). These discoveries, partnered by an improved u nderstanding of the immune system and the identification of specific and relevant carbohydrate structures, led to the development of glycoconjugates, which in turn led to carbohydrate vaccine development (Holemann and Seeberger, 2004). Glycoconjugates are present in the surfaces of cells, as well as in the surrounding extracellular matrices and connective tissue. Therefore both the identified structure and presence of glyconjugates, plus the role they play, means they are a suitable basis for the development of new vaccines. Induction of protective antibodies is key to an effective immune response as a result of a vaccine, and as with peptide vaccines, challenges have been evident in the research to develop effective carbohydrate vaccines, including the following: Glycans struggle to effectively induce protective antibodies Carbohydrates have a low immunogenic impact by themselves (as observed with peptides). There are two main carbohydrate vaccine types: 1. Natural carbohydrate vac cines: these include small amounts of impurities 2. Synthetic carbohydrate vaccines: these are produced with no contaminants, and are cost-effective due large-scale production. Synthetic carbohydrate antigens used to develop vaccines have triggered immune responses in clinical studies and are favourable given the risk of adverse effects with natural vaccines. Four crucial aspects need to be considered for the design of carbohydrate-based vaccines (Astronomo and Burton, 2010): The antigen source: glycan antigens are diverse, ranging from large polysaccharide capsules, to small monosaccharides, to oligosaccharides, all of which have been shown to be adequate for preparation of vaccines. The carrier: this is most often proteins, although other materials have been investigated, with the aim of ensuring that the link between the antigen and the carrier is specific. The method of conjugation (or ligation): protein conjugates, lipid conjugates and polyvalent scaffold conjugates have been d eveloped. The success of a conjugate vaccine depends partly on the method of conjugation employed. This should be simple and efficient, as well as causing minimal distortion to the individual components involved, with many differing techniques used (Zou & Jennings, 2009; Ada and Isaacs, 2003). The choice of adjuvant: required to improve immunogenicity of the carbohydrate antigens being targeted, with a limited choice approved for use in humans. Examples of diseases targeted by carbohydrate-based vaccines The discussion will now move on to the use of carbohydrate-based vaccines in three disease areas: Group A Streptococcus (GAS), HIV/AIDS and Haemophilus influenza type b. GAS The need for a safe, effective, affordable and practical vaccine against GAS (also known as Streptococcus pyogenes), has been recognised for many years, as has the research into a vaccine against this disease, given the global burden on health that this disease causes in particular in less developed countries. More than 500,000 deaths result from the GAS each year, with the bacteria causing a range of both less complicated and life-threatening illnesses (Carapetis, Steer, Mulholland and Weber, 2005). The diversity of GAS strains is the major challenge for the development of an anti-GAS vaccine, with more than 100 different strains identified, of which the genetic sequence for several different strains have been determined (Johnson and Pinto, 2002). Rese arch has identified that GAS bacteria contain a surface polysaccharide made up of long, repetitive polysaccharide chains. The conserved and constant arrangement of these chains suggests conjugate vaccines to be an attractive and achievable option, with animal models supporting this theory (Cunningham, 2000). Synthetic carbohydrate vaccines, although only studied in a limited set of GAS infections, have demonstrated a protective immune response (Robbins et al., 2009). In addition, some areas of research have focused on the molecular analysis of a surface protein labelled the M protein, which is encoded by the emm gene. This particular gene has been found to be the major cause of GAS related clinical manifestations (Smeesters, McMillan and Sriprakash, 2010). These findings have allowed a greater understanding of the functioning of specific proteins responsible for the virulence of the disease, which in turn, supports the development of potential GAS vaccines. Vaccine prevention of GAS and the resulting symptoms and complications has been a goal of researchers for many years. A number of vaccines have been in research development to offer protection against GAS, with the research vaccine strategies focusing on either M protein, or non-M protein antigens (Smeesters, 2014). However only those vaccines that use the M protein as the antigen have progressed to clinical trials (McNeil et. al., 2005), and have included conserved antigens coverage across the many strains of GAS, a type-specific vaccine based on the N-terminal portion of the M protein, and a recombinant vaccine that reached phase II clinical trials (Pandey, Wykes, Hartas, Good and Batzloff, 2013; Bauer, 2012). However no vaccine has currently reached licensing and so the diseases caused remain uncontrolled in many areas, with reviews covering the research suggesting that even those vaccines developed with the aim of providing large coverage of GAS strains, these vaccine might achieve acceptable coverage i n developed countries, but in less developed countries where the disease burden is much greater, the positive impact of the vaccines would be much lower due to a greater strain diversity (Smeesters, McMillan, Sriprakash, and Georgousakis, 2009; Steer, Law, Matatolu, Beall and Carapetis, 2009; McMillan and Sanderson, 2013). Equally, antibiotic treatment is either impractical with regards to implementation (specifically in less developed countries) or ineffective. One research group targeted the bacteria by synthesising a new self-adjuvanting vaccine candidate, incorporating a carbohydrate carrier and an amino acid-based adjuvant, resulting in successful synthesis and characterisation of the vaccine candidate. This may contribute to the identification of a safe and effective vaccine against GAS in the future (Simerska et. al., 2008; Simerska, Lu and Toth, 2009). HIV/AIDS One of the main challenges researchers have faced within the field of vaccine development against HIV/AIDS, is that the virus surface is covered with layers of glycans, which conceal underlying viral antigens that are potential good targets in the production of vaccines (Scanlan, Offer, Zitzmann, and Dwek, 2007). They are produced by the host cell, which makes the virus appear as â€Å"self† resulting in no attack being triggered by the host immune system. The layers of carbohydrate also contain mannose residues, making these another potential target for a vaccine aimed at preventing HIV infection, whereby lectins preferentially bind to ? 1-2 linked mannose residues. Such lectins are being investigated as possible therapeutic tools (Tsai et al., 2004) although the fact that lectins are often toxic needs to be researched further to avoid the host immune system damaging host cells. Indeed, other drugs that are known to inhibit synthesis of carbohydrates only have this effect at often toxic concentrations to cause antiviral activity. Another strategy based on the same principle of developing a carbohydrate vaccine, is the identification of antibodies that again recognise and bind to glycans. (Scanlan et al., 2002, Scanlan et al., 2007). The antibody appears to recognize these glycans because although they belong to the host, they are arranged in a â€Å"non-self† manner (Scanlan et al., 2002; Scanlan et al., 2007), making the production of effective ant-HIV vaccines a real possibility, in addition to vaccines for other diseases such as cancer (Galonic and Gin, 2007). Studies have also been described using immune enhancing adjuvants, carrier peptides such as keyhole limpet hemocyanin and altered glycan structure constructs that support immune recognition in the development of vaccines against cancer (Galonic and Gin, 2007). These same strategies are being used in development of possible HIV vaccines, where antibodies target self-carbohydrates arranged slightly differently on cancer cells and HIV-infected cells, in comparison to healthy cells. (Galonic and Gin, 20 07). These approaches have not as yet led to clinically effective vaccines, but it is clear that antibodies that strongly bind to carbohydrate antigens on, for example, prostate cancer cells, have been generated (Slovin et al., 2003) and this appears to be a highly promising approach. Further exploration is required based on the carbohydrate coat of the virus, which may lead to improved prevention treatment of HIV. Haemophilus influenza type b The first synthetic vaccine for human application was developed in 2003 for protection against Haemophilus influenza type b vaccine, not only providing protection against this bacterium, but also against all the associated diseases it causes ranging from meningitis, septicaemia, pneumonia and arthritis (Doshi, Shanbhag, Aggarwal, Shahare and Martis, 2011). Indeed this bacterium is the leading cause of serious illnesses in children under 5 years worldwide. The majority of strains of Haemophilus influenza are non-encapsulated, and are lacking in any carbohydrate polysaccharide protective structure, as opposed to the GAS bacteria and HIV virus described earlier. This structural information armed researchers with the knowledge that carbohydrate polysaccharide conjugate vaccines would be required to ensure the development of an effective vaccine (Verez-Bencomo et. al., 2004). As a result, carbohydrate-based vaccines have been licensed for protection in humans against haemophilus influenza type b, using oligomerization and a carrier protein (Doshi et. al., 2011).Evidence of progressTo end this section of the discussion, several conjugate polysaccharide carbohydrate vaccines are now well into pre-clinical/clinical development, or have been licensed and are now commercially available. Examples of licensed vaccines include the following (Astronomo and Burton, 2010): Haemophilus influenza type b (Hib) – 4 carbohydrate-based vaccines are licensed via 3 different pharmaceutical companies: ActHIB and Hiberix; Pentacel; PedvaxHIB; and Comvax Neisseria meningitides A, C, Y and W-135 – 2 carbohydrate-based vaccines are licensed via the same pharmaceutical company: Menactra; and Menomune-A/C/Y/W-135 Salmonella typhi – 1 carbohydrate- based vaccine is licensed: TYPHIM Vi Streptococcus pneumonia variants – 2 carbohydrate-based vaccines are licensed via 2 different pharmaceutical companies: Prevnar; and Pneumovax 23. Examples of carbohydrate-based vaccines in development include the following, where the disease is described in addition to the phase of development (Astronomo and Burton, 2010): Breast cancer – with 1 vaccine at the preclinical phase and a second at phase I Prostate cancer – 4 vaccines are in development at the preclinical, phase I and phase II stages HIV-1 – 1 vaccine at the preclinical phase Group A streptococcus – 1 vaccine at the preclinical phase Group B streptococcus – 1 vaccine at phase II. Conclusion It is fact that vaccines have had a major role to play in the success of preventing and treating many diseases, however many challenges remain. Diseases exist for which no effective vaccines have yet been discovered, including HIV/AIDs. In addition, diseases that have been controlled by vaccines in some parts of the world continue to affect the lives of people adversely in other areas where infrastructures for vaccination are poor/non-existent. Continued research is necessary to develop vaccines not only for those diseases with no vaccine available, but also to improve the effectiveness of existing vaccines. In addition to research focusing on novel and promising approaches such as carbohydrate and peptide based vaccines, efforts also need to concentrate on areas such as lower cost, more convenient delivery of vaccines, and longer-term protection. The future direction of research in this field has become focused with the help of new evidence-based information and promising data. The advent of synthetic peptide-based and carbohydrate-based vaccines signified a new era for vaccines, over-taking traditional treatments and vaccines which have become either ineffective or only offer short term protection. As the discussion demonstrates, a number of vaccines are already successfully protecting humans against some pathogens and disease, with the potential for further vaccines to follow. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, it should be remembered that unlike drug-based medicines, vaccines primarily offer a cure, a goal all aim to achieve. Word count: 3130 (excluding references) References Ada, G. & Isaacs, D. (2003). Carbohydrate-protein conjugate vaccines. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 9(2): p. 79-85. Astronomo, R.D. & Burton, D.R. (2010). Carbohydrate vaccines: developing sweet solutions to sticky situationsNature Reviews: Drug Discovery. 9: p. 30-324. Barrett, A.D.T. & Stanberry, L.R. (Eds.). (2009). Vaccines for Biodefense and Emerging and Neglected Diseases. Elsevier Inc., ISBN 978-0-3-69408-9. Bauer M.J., Georgousakis M.M., Vu T., Henningham A., Hofmann A., Rettel M., Hafner L.M., Sriprakash K.S. & McMillan D.J. (2012). Evaluation of novel streptococcus pyogenes vaccine candidates incorporating multiple conserved sequences from the C-repeat region of the M-protein. Vaccine. 30(12): p. 2197-2205. Ben-Yedidia, T. & Arnon, R. (1997). Design of Peptide and Polypeptide Vaccines. Curr. Opin. Biotech. 8(4): p. 442-448). Carapetis, J.R., Steer, A.C., Mulholland E.K. & Weber, M. (2005). The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. Lancet Infect Dis. 5(11): p. 685-694. Cunningham M. (2000). Pathogenesis of group A streptococcal infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 13: p. 470-511. Doshi, G.M., Shanbhag, P.P., Aggarwal, G.V., Shahare, M.D. & Martis, E.A. Carbohydrate Vaccines- A burgeoning field of Glycomics. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science 1(02): p. 17-22. Dudek, N.L., Perlmutter, P., Aguilar, M.I., Croft, N.P. & Purcell, A.W. (2010). Epitope discovery and their use in peptide based vaccines. Curr Pharm Des. 16: p. 3149-3157. Flower, D.R. (2013). Designing immunogenic peptides. Nature Chemical Biology. 9(12): p. 749–753. Francis Jr, T. & Tillett, W.S. (1930). Cutaneous reactions in pneumonia. The development of antibodies following the intradermal injection of type-specific polysaccharide. J. Exp. Med. 52: p. 573–585. Galonic, D.P. & Gin, D.Y. (2007). Chemical glycosylation in the synthesis of glycoconjugate antitumour vaccines. Nature. 446: p. 1000–7. Heegaard, P.M.H., Dedieu, L., Johnson, N., Le Potier, M-F., Mockey, M., Mutinelli, F., Vahlenkamp, T., Vascellari, M. & Sorensen, N.S. (2010). Adjuvants and delivery systems in veterinary vaccinology: current state and future developments. Arch Virol. 156(2):p. 183-202. Heidelberger, M., Dilapi, M.M, Siegel, & Walter, A.W. (1950). Persistence of antibodies in human subjects injected with pneumococcal polysaccharides. J. Immunol. 65l: pp. 535–541. Holemann, A. & Seeberger, P. (2004). Carbohydrate diversity: Synthesis of glycoconjugates and complex carbohydrates. Curr Opin In Biotech. 15(1): p. 615-622. Johnson, M.A. & Pinto, B.M. (2002). Saturation transfer difference 1D-TOCSY experiments to map the topography of oligosacchraides recognised by a monoclonal antibody directed against the cell-wall polysaccharide group A streptococcus. J Am Chem Soc. 124: p. 15368-15374. McMillan, D.J., Sanderson-Smith, M.L., Smeesters, P.R. & Sriprakash, K.S. (2013). Molecular markers for the study of streptococcal epidemiology. Current topics in microbiology and immunology. 368: p. 29-48. McNeil, S.A., Halperin, S.A., Langley, J.M., Smith, B., Warren, A., Sharratt, G.P., Baxendale, D.M., Reddish, M.A., Hu, M.C., Stroop, S.D., Linden, J., Fries, L.F., Vink, P.E. & Dale, J.B. (2005). Safety and immunogenicity of 26-valent group A streptococcus vaccine in healthy adult volunteers. Clin Infect Dis. 41(8): p. 1114-22. Moisa, A.A. & Kolesanova, E.F. (2012). Synthetic Peptide Vaccines, Insight and Control of Infectious Disease in Global Scenario. Dr. Roy Priti (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0319-6. Moyle, P.M. & Toth, I. (2008). Self-adjuvanting lipopeptide vaccines. Current Medicinal Chemistry. 15: p. 506–516. Pandey, M., Wykes, M.N., Hartas, J., Good, M.F. & Batzloff M.R. (2013). Long-term antibody memory induced by synthetic peptide vaccination is protective against Streptococcus pyogenes infection and is independent of memory T cell help. Journal of immunology. 190(6): p. 2692-701. Plotkin, S.A., Orenstein, W.A. & Offit, P,A. Eds (2013). Vaccines. 6th ed. Edinburgh: Elsevier/Saunders. Reche, P.A., Fernandez-Caldas, E., Flower, D.R., Fridkis-Hareli, M. & Hoshino, Y. (2014). Peptide-Based Immunotherapeutics and Vaccines. Journal of Immunology Research. Editorial. 2014: 2 pages. Robbins, J.B., Kubler-Kielb, E., Vinogradov, E., Mocca, C., Pozsgay, V., Shiloach, J. & Scheerson, R. (2009). Synthesis, characterisation, and immunogenicity in mice of Shigella sonnei O-specific, oligosaccharide-core-protein conjugates. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 106: p. 7974-7978. Scanlan, C.N., Pantophlet, R., Wormald, M.R., Ollmann Saphire, E., Stanfield, R., Wilson, I.A., Katinger, H., Dwek, R.A., Rudd, P.M. & Burton, D.R. (2002). The broadly neutralizing anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 antibody 2G12 recognizes a cluster of alpha1>2 mannose residues on the outer face of gp120. J Virol. 76: p. 7306–21. Scanlan, C.N., Offer, J., Zitzmann, N. & Dwek, RA. (2007). Exploiting the defensive sugars of HIV-1 for drug and vaccine design. Nature. 446: p. 1038–45. Simerska, P.,Abdel-Aal, A.B.M, Fujita, Y., Batzloff, Good, M.F. & Toth, I. (2008). Synthesis and in vivo studies of carbohydrate-based vaccines against group A Streptococcus. Peptide Science. 90(5): p. 611-616. Simerska, P., Lu, H. & Toth, I. (2009). Synthesis of a Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine candidate based on the M protein PL1 epitope. Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 19(3): p. 821-824. Simerska, P., Moyle, P.M. & Toth, I. (2011). Modern lipid-, carbohydrate-, and peptide-based delivery systems for peptide, vaccine, and gene products. Med Res Rev. 31: p. 520-47. Slovin, S.F., Ragupathi, G., Musselli, C., Olkiewic,z K., Verbel,D., Kuduk, S.D., Schwarz, J.B., Sames, D., Danishefsky, S., Livingston, P.O. & Scher, H.I. (2003). Fully synthetic carbohydrate-based vaccines in biochemically relapsed prostate cancer: clinical trial results with alpha-N-acetylgalactosamine-O-serine/threonine conjugate vaccine. J Clin Oncol. 21:p. 4292–8. Smeesters, P.R., McMillan, D.J. and Sriprakash, K.S. (2010). The streptococcal M protein: a highly versatile molecule. Trends Microbiol. 18: p. 275-282. Smeesters, P.R., McMillan, D.J., Sriprakash, K.S. & Georgousakis, M.M. (2009). Differences among group A streptococcus epidemiological landscapes: consequences for M protein-based vaccinesExpert Rev Vaccines. 8(12): p. 1705-20. Smeesters, P.R. (2014). Immunity and vaccine development against Streptococcus pyogenes: is emm-typing enoughProc Belgian Roy Acad Med. 3: p. 89-98. Steer, A.C., Batzloff, M.R., Mulholland, K. & Carapetis, J.R. (2009). Group A streptococcal vaccines: facts versus fantasy. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases. 22(6): p. 544-552. Steer, A.C., Law, I., Matatolu, L., Beall, B.W. & Carapetis, J.R. (2009). Global emm type distribution of group A streptococci: systematic review and implications for vaccine development. Lancet Infect Dis. 9(10): p. 611-6. Tsai, C.C., Emau, P., Jiang, Y., Agy, M.B., Shattock, R.J., Schmidt, A., Morton, W.R., Gustafson, K.R., Boyd & M.R. (2004). Cyanovirin-N inhibits AIDS virus infections in vaginal transmission models. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 20(1): p. 11–18. Verez-Bencomo, V., Fernandez-Santana, V., Hardy, E., Toledo, M.E., Rodriguez, M.C., Heynngnezz, L., Rodriguez, A., Baly, A., Herrera, L., Izquierdo, M., Villar, A., Valdes, Y., Cosme, K., Deler, M.L., Montane, M., Garcia, E., Ramos, A., Aguilar, A., Medina, E., Torano, G., Sosa, I., Hernandez, I., Martinez, R., Muzachio, A., Carmenates, A., Costa, L., Cardoso, F., Campa, C., Diaz, M. & Roy, R. (2004). A synthetic conjugate polysaccharide vaccine against Haemophilus influenzae type b. Science. 305(5683): p. 552-555. Wang, C.Y. & Walfield, A.M. (2005). Site-specific peptide vaccines for immunotherapy and immunization against chronic diseases, cancer, infectious diseases, and for veterinary applications. Vaccine. 23(17-18): p. 2049–2056. Yang, D., Holt, G.E., Rudolf, M.P., Velders, M.P., Brandt, R.M.P., Kwon, E.D. & Kast, W.M. (2001). Peptide Vaccines. In: New Vaccine Technologies. Chapter 12: p. 214-226. Zhong, W., Skwarczynski, M. & Toth, I. (2009) Lipid Core Peptide System for Gene, Drug, and Vaccine Delivery. Australian Journal of Chemistry. 62: p. 956–967. Zou, W.. & Jennings, H.J. (2009). Preparation of glycoconjugate vaccines. In: Carbohydrate-Based Vaccines and Immunotherapies. Chapter 2.

Indonesian Economy: Asia Pulp and Paper

Indonesian Economy Asia Pulp and Paper A short strategy analysis of APP mission , vision and strategy Indonesian Economy Asia Pulp and Paper A short strategy analysis of APP mission , vision and strategy Summary Introduction2 I. company overview3 II. APP’s financials, environment issues and mattel4 1. APP’s financials 2. Environment issues 3. Mattel III. The challenges and recomanded strategy7 1. The challeges 2. Recommandations IV. APP, a company to watch9 Conclusion10 References Introduction Corporate governance refers to the control of the firm, its ownership structure, and the disclosure quality. It was widely discussed in relation to the Asian crisis in 1997-98, because poor firm performance was assumed to be related to bad corporate governance . In particular, the East Asian economic model was said to reveal a â€Å"crony capitalism†, with the presence of numerous family-controlled groups, a high ownership concentration, a weak public governance, and poor monitoring of bank loans . The group Asia Pulp & Paper (APP) expanded impressively in the 1990s and became the largest pulp and paper producer in Asia outside Japan, and one of the top ten producers in the world. It attracted investors from all over the world in a context of â€Å"Asian miracle†, and because the giant pulp mills built in Indonesia were assumed to produce at the lowest cost in the world . Surprisingly, the group announced a debt standstill on $13 billion in 2001, the largest default for a private group in an emerging country At the same time, it was revealed that the industrial capacities had expanded at a much faster pace than the forest plantations, thus representing a high risk that operations would not be sustainable. Available studies showed the apparent lack of rationality in the decisions of the group, and the critical situation it faces from both financial and wood supply points of view. However, another explanation would be more convincing, which is based on the very rational behaviour of the ultimate owners of the group. This rationality being related to their ability: to increase their control of the decisions and accounts compared to their direct financial investments, to finance the expansion mainly with debts in order to reduce their own risks and to maximize their short-term profits, ,to benefit from a lax public governance context and a free access to natural forests for supplying fiber to the pulp mills. APP's trajectory has not been clean of obstacles , so with the tools provided by the theory strategy and organizational management we ‘re going to try to find the  «Ã‚  good  » way to manage that company . This is important because APP's default has attracted much attention so far, and the resolution of the case will impact on the willingness of foreigners to invest back in Indonesia. I. Company overview Asia Pulp and Paper (APP) has its roots in 1972, when the company Tjiwi Kimia was founded by Eka Tjipta Widjaja as a small caustic soda manufacturer. In 1978, Tjiwi Kimia commenced paper production of 12,000 tons/year. In December 1976, Indah Kiat was formed as a joint venture between CV Berkat (an Indonesian company), Chung Hwa Pulp Corporation and Yuen Foong Yu Paper Manufacturing Company Ltd. from Taiwan. In April 1979 Indah Kiat Tangerang mill’s Paper Machine 1 and 2 started with a production of 100 tons/day of wood free paper. By March 1984 Indah Kiat Perawang mill’s Pulp Machine 1 started producing bleached hardwood kraft pulp with an initial capacity of 250 tons/day. In May 1986 Sinar Mas Group acquired 67% of Indah Kiat’s total shares. Chung Hwa and Yuen Foong Yu had 23% and 10% shares respectively. In 1987 the first cast coating machine installed at Tjiwi Kimia, and in April 1990 Tjiwi Kimia was listed on the Jakarta and Surabaya Stock Exchange. In 1991 Tjiwi Kimia’s PM 9 started operation with an annual capacity of 207,000 tons. The following year Indah Kiat acquired PT Sinar Dunia Makmur, a manufacturer of industrial paper located in Serang with a 2. roduction capacity of 900 tons/day. jiwi Kimia commissioned the Carbonless Paper Plant in March 1993, an experiment The company Pindo Deli under control of APP in Feb. 1994, and by 1997 its paper machine #8 and #9 would both have begin operation with production capacity of 240,000 tons per year. In 1998, paper machine #11 started tissue production in Pindo Deli with annual production capacity of 400,000 tons started to operate. APP-China began investing in China in 1992, with an emp hasis on the Yangtze and Pearl River Deltas. APP-China's pulp and paper mills now include Ningbo Zhonghua, Goldeast Paper, Ningbo Asia, Gold Huasheng, Gold Hongye, and Hainan Jinhai Pulp and Paper. APP-China was registered in Singapore in October 1994. APP-China employs over 37,000 people and created 5,000 new jobs in 2009 II. APP’S Financials, Environment issues and Mattel 1. APP’s financials Growth of the pulp and paper industry in Indonesia mainly came from leverage, which drove returns on equity ever higher. International financial institutions had played a central role in supplying the finances for APP. Its assets totaled US$17. billion, of which shareholders had financed 25 per cent (the most important shareholders being the Widjaja family, and the American fund managers, Franklin Templeton Investments and Capital Group), bondholders 38 per cent and banks 20 per cent. Over 300 international financial institutions, including many leading financial institutions (e. g. , investment banks in the U. S. , The Neth erlands, Switzerland and Germany) and export credit agencies were among those heavily involved in providing and guaranteeing this finance over the 10 years prior to 2001. Among the private financial institutions were Barclays Bank, NatWest, Morgan Stanley Dean Witter, Credit Suisse First Boston, Goldman Sachs, Franklin Templeton, Capital Group, Merrill Lynch, Bank of America, Deutsche Bank, ABN Amro and Bank of China. The use of financial â€Å"mark-up† practices – that is, the artificial inflation of the cost of an investment project – had allowed some pulp and paper products to secure much larger amounts of financing for their projects than they actually needed. In fact, financial institutions queued up to invest in the Indonesian pulp and paper companies because they perceived that they had a competitive advantage due to their access to cheap raw material resources. The situation turned difficult for APP in April 2001 when it announced that it had failed to include a US$220 million loss on two currency swap contracts in its financial statements, quickly followed by an official announcement that earlier financial statements for 1997 to 1999 â€Å"should not be relied upon†. A confidential 2,000-page report from KPMG released in July 2001 listed questionable transactions and accounting entries made in 1999 and 2000 by APP’s four Indonesian entities, and noted $1. 6 billion in provisions for doubtful debts, reclassification of receivables as well as a $672 million in derivative losses from various APP units. Other transactions, including $457 million in guarantees for non-APP companies, brought the total amount in the â€Å"questionable† category to $4. 41 billion. 2. Environment issues APP-China invested over 300 million RMB in environmental conservation facilities and activities in 2009 alone, and had invested over 5 billion RMB in environmental protection by 2009. APP-China inn 2009 also achieved 100% treatment of its solid waste from its six major pulp and paper mills. APP-China was honored in 2009 with the â€Å"Award of Contribution to Low Carbon Business (Multinational Corporation)† at the first meeting of the Low Carbon Forum hosted by the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultatative Committee (CPPCC) and the China Association for Science and Technology. APP-China also received the â€Å"Green China Campaign-2009 Scientific Development of Forest Plantation Special Award† by the China Green Foundation and the State Bureau of Forestry, Center for Economic Development Research. Further, APP-China received the â€Å"2009 Scientific Forest Plantation Development Award† by the China Green Times. In November 2007, Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) decided to rescind the rights of APP to use their logo, following pressure from other FSC Stakeholders, and a new policy approach by FSC Board of Directors. A investigation published in March 2008 by an environmental coalition called Eyes on the Forest showed evidence of a new road built by APP, heading through the Kampar peninsula, one of the world's largest contiguous tropical peat swamp forests, with more carbon per hectare than any other ecosystem on Earth. The investigation found tracks on the new road of the critically endangered Sumatran Tiger, whose wild population has been reduced to less than 500 individuals. APP claimed that it was building this state-of-the-art, paved highway for the benefit of the local communities, though satellite imagery shows that the road does not go anywhere near the two settlements. 3. Mattel On June 8, 2011, Greenpeace launched â€Å"Barbie, It's Over†, an international campaign criticising Mattel's use of Asia Pulp & Paper's products in its packaging, particularly in its line of Barbie products. Within two days of the campaign's start, Mattel ordered its packaging suppliers to stop buying from Asia Pulp & Paper pending an investigation into Greenpeace's deforestation allegations, and further ordered its suppliers to report on how they source materials. Asia Pulp ; Paper welcomed Mattel's response, believing that Mattel's investigation would conclude that its â€Å"packaging materials are more than 95% recycled paper sourced from around the world. † On October 5, 2011, Greenpeace announced that Mattel stated that it would no longer purchase pulp and paper products from Asia Pulp ; Paper due to the effects that its logging practices had on the Sumatran tiger population III. Challenges and recommanded strategy 1. The challenges The Strategy Group has identified many significant challenges facing the ndustry, including: * loss of demand for its products due to the consequences of the global financial crisis in late 2008 and early 2009 * increased consumer and business use of digital communications, resulting in a slowing of the growth in consumption of paper-based communication, including newspapers * increased competition from cheaper imports, often using fibre from unsustainable sources, resulting in an uneven international pl aying field * projected shortages in available wood-based fibre to provide feedstock for existing pulp and paper facilities, especially due to limits on timber plantation establishment * escalating costs of key industry inputs, especially electricity, and limitations on the ability of the industry to capitalise on its innate energy generation capability * level of investment has been low—those mills lacking investment are facing closure while others which have continued or increased investment have become automated and more efficient * he growth of China, India and other emerging economies such as Indonesia, which is significantly altering the traditional supply and demand dynamics for paper products * the low level of R;D by Australia’s pulp and paper companies affecting the level of innovation and international competitiveness they can achieve * government and community responses to climate change, affecting all industries in Asia, including the pulp and paper indust ry 2. Recommandations Recommendations can be grouped into four major themes: innovation, investment, sustainability and productivity. The first recommendation is fundamental to the entire strategy and stretches across all four themes. It deals with the government’s commitment to the long-term viability of the pulp and paper industry in Asia and its workers. Asian Government( China, Japan, Singapour,indnesia) make a clear public statement supporting the value and long-term viability of the Asian pulp and paper industry, recognising the industry’s commitment to good environmental outcomes and its key role in the provision of economic and social opportunities for thousands of Asian, many in vulnerable regional communities. Innovation A Pulp and Paper Industry Innovation Council shloud be established and appropriately funded to build a culture of innovation in the industry. The Innovation Council will recognise Asian’s competitive strengths in fibre production, product innovation and renewable energy, and focus on long-term issues facing the industry. Investment The asian Government establish a plantation investment model that delivers the re-establishment and expansion of timber plantations to underpin existing processing industries or led to the creation of new processing industries in asia . Sustainability The Australian Government work with industry to support internationally recognised forest certification schemes (including the Indonesian Forestry Standard, the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification and the Forest Stewardship Council’s certification scheme) that provide for legal and sustainable forest management which ensures transparency, accountability and global and local consistency of application. Productivity Noting the significant price increases associated with the exercise of generator market power in the National Electricity Market, the Ministerial Council on Energy should accelerate efforts to improve competition in the wholesale electricity market, including by increasing penalties and developing rule changes to limit the exercise of generator market power. The Asian Government should support workforce planning and development initiatives that underpin future economic opportunities for the pulp and paper industry and its workforce. IV. APP, a compa ny to watch APP is a company more in the news than not, and for some good reasons; it has a well known plan to be the Number 1 pulp and paper company in the world; it operates in one of the â€Å"hottest† regions, Indonesia, when it comes to the NGOs focus on deforestation and climate change; it has a strategy of organic growth that includes the installation of the biggest and very best and in pulp and paper technology: and a strategy of acquisitive growth that will probably put it firmly in the RISI headline news stakes even more regularly next year. With its bold mission to be the number 1, APP is going to have yet another tough year in 2011 as it comes under even closer scrutiny regarding its forestry and plantation operations in Indonesia. Indeed 2010 saw a ramping up of NGO activity aimed against the company, particularly from Greenpeace, in which it published a series of reports highlighting alleged environmental transgressions, as well as naming some of the major brands around the world that were buying the company's products. APP in return commissioned a series of independent reports, including one by former Greenpeace founder Dr Patrick Moore, refuting the allegations. But perhaps the real reason this company is one of our Five to Watch for next year is its seemingly unstoppable progress, with new expansions in both pulp and paper too numerous to mention, including the start up of the world's biggest fine paper machine located on Hainan Island, China. One of the main areas of interest is where all the fine paper that APP is producing is going to go as duties have now been imposed in both the US and Europe on fine paper coming in from China. Duties are also now being talked about in Brazil and India as anti-dumping fears in those countries come to the fore. Another major development on the horizon is APP's aggressive acquisition strategy abroad through its subsidiary Paper Excellence based in Holland which has already seen it buy up four pulp mills, two in France and two in Canada. Could we see APP making an acquisition of a major European or US pulp or paper company in 2011? Conclusion APP’s trajectory since the early 1990s has been very impressive for several reasons. Focusing at first on Indonesia to develop a pulp and paper empire in order to become one of the top ten producers in the world, the group achieved its objective owing to very lax attitudes on the part of investors both from Indonesia and abroad. The context of the early and mid 1990s, with the so-called ‘Asian miracle’ and the Indonesian government’s official policy of pushing industries with a clear export-oriented stance, and the availability of huge forest areas for conversion, permitted the extraordinarily fast expansion of APP’s capacity. This expansion has been mainly based on debts, either through bond issuance or bank loans. In conclusion, Asia Pulp & Paper seems to illustrate the theories saying that the divergence between ownership and control through pyramid structures corresponds to poor corporate governance and leads to lower firm performance. References â€Å"Why a ‘Green' Logo May Mean Little,† Wall Street Journal, 30 Oct 2007 * New APP Logging Road Threatens One of World’s Biggest Carbon-Storing Forests, Tigers; Eyes on the Forest, March 2008 * Logging Road Threatens Rare Peat Dome, Tigers * People's Daily Online – Forestry authorities charges Singaporean paper giant with illegal logging * Asia Times Online  :: Southeast Asia news and business from Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Vietnam * a b FSC rules in upheaval after green groups level accusations at APP | printweek. com | Latest Print Industry News, Jobs, Features, Product Reviews, Used Printing and Packaging Machinery * FT. com / Home UK / UK – The usefulness of scholarships and tigers * Ethical Corporation: Archive – APP decision a â€Å"landmark† for China’s environmentalists * http://www. rainforest-alliance. rg/forestry/documents/app. pdf * wikipedia * APP ‘ s Annual report 2010 , from www. freereport. com * http://www. ppimagazine. com/ppiissue/ ————â₠¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€œ [ 1 ]. Sumatran Tiger incident  : During late July 2011 Greenpeace revealed images and footage on their website that showed a critically endangered Sumatran tiger. This tiger had become trapped by an animal snare at the edge of an APP concession, and had been there for at least seven days, without food or water. Attempts to tranquilise and rescue the tiger failed due to its poor condition of health. APP denied any responsibility, despite reports to the contrary.

Prepositional Idioms with of

Prepositional Idioms with of Prepositional Idioms with â€Å"of† Prepositional Idioms with â€Å"of† By Maeve Maddox The other day I read a letter supposedly written by a literature professor. It contained what struck me as the unidiomatic use of the preposition to attached to the adjective ignorant. Note: An expression is idiomatic when its meaning is not deducible from the meanings of the individual words. In idiomatic usage, the exact same words can have different meanings, depending upon context. Take, for example, the phrasal verb â€Å"put out†: put out the light (extinguish) put out the cat (place outside) put out your hand (extend) ESL learners spend hours memorizing dependent prepositions and the words they appear with because few dependable rules exist to explain the usage. We’re angry with a person, but angry about an injustice. We’re concerned about our children, but concerned with the ecological movement. I don’t remember having been taught these patterns. I just know what â€Å"sounds right.† The dependent preposition I’ve always heard used with the adjective ignorant is of: He was ignorant of the consequences of his actions. For this reason, I was startled to read what the literature professor wrote: I specialize in literature, feminism, and cultural criticism (so naturally I would be ignorant to something that got 700,000 views). Note: the professor was being sarcastic. Of course she knew about whatever it was that â€Å"got 700,000 views.† My impulse was to condemn the unidiomatic usage â€Å"ignorant to† without further ado, but then I recalled the way â€Å"bored of† has spread in recent years. To me, â€Å"bored of† is horribly unidiomatic, but since writing an unforgiving post about it, I’ve seen on Google N-Gram Viewer that the appearance of â€Å"bored of† in printed books has risen precipitately since the 1980s. Further, according to the Oxford Dictionaries online site, â€Å"the Oxford English Corpus  contains almost twice as many instances of â€Å"bored of† than â€Å"bored by.† Clearly my knee-jerk reaction to unidiomatic preposition use bears examination. I did a web search. Sure enough, â€Å"ignorant to† is out there in blog postings and reader comments: Why are people so ignorant to the facts? I think hes ignorant to the fact that they both wanted it People just are ignorant to the fact that system files use up that space too. Torres seems ignorant to the danger he is in. So far, â€Å"ignorant to† is still rare in modern usage compared to â€Å"bored of.† By the way, although the folks at Oxford acknowledge the popularity of â€Å"bored of,† they also acknowledge that it’s still not considered to be standard English: â€Å"It’s best to avoid using it in formal writing.† When it comes to which preposition to use with which adjective, the spirit of the language will decide. Meanwhile, careful writers and speakers may wish to review current prepositional use and use the established patterns. To get you started, here are a few examples of adjectives that take the preposition of: accuse of: The homeless man was accused of vandalizing a park bench. acquitted of: When more evidence came to light, the man was acquitted of the charge. capable of: Unsocialized children are capable of atrocious behavior. censorship of: Throughout history, governments and religious institutions have advocated the censorship of books. consist of: Krapp’s diet consisted of bananas and water. convince (someone) of: You’ll never convince him of the truth of your argument. critical of: He is critical of everything I write. deprive of: Millions of children grow up deprived of ordinary comforts. disapprove of: Some people make it a policy to disapprove of everything they didn’t think of first. jealous of: Some men are jealous of the success of their wives. kind of: What kind of books do you like to read? regardless of: The soldiers were required to shave, regardless of their wishes. required of: Familiarity with standard English is required of all applicants. short of: I can’t go to the movies because I’m short of cash. take charge of: Adolescents are encouraged to take charge of their learning. unmindful of: The wounded man staggered aimlessly, unmindful of traffic. worthy of: This writing is worthy of a professional novelist. And, let’s not forget, ignorant of: Many native English speakers seem to be ignorant of established prepositional use that ESL learners struggle to master. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:What Does [sic] Mean?Loan, Lend, Loaned, LentWhat the heck are "learnings"?

FAFSA App Your Ultimate 2016 Guide to Max Scholarships

FAFSA App Your Ultimate 2016 Guide to Max Scholarships SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The FAFSA, or Free Application for Federal Student Aid, is the one application you’ll need to submit in order to be considered for all forms of federal aid. If you’re interested in financial aid at all (even if you’re thinking about private funding sources or school-based aid), it’s of the utmost importance you submit one of these applications. The application itself seems daunting at first, but with a little bit of forethought and a few hours of your time, you’ll be able to complete it successfully! I'll start off this post with some info about the FASFA, before moving on to step-by-step instructions on how to apply for FAFSA. Finally, I'll give you some tips on what you should be doing after your submit your FAFSA. Ready to get some financial aid? We'll present everything you must know in order to apply most successfully. Why Is the FAFSA Important? As I'm sure you already know, attending college in the US is pretty expensive. Prohibitively so, actually, for a lot of students - in fact, most US college students have some sort of financial aid. When you submit a FAFSA, you're taking a step in mitigating some of these expenses. This application will open up opportunities for both federal and non-federal aid. The aid programs you're automatically considered for include: The Pell Grant Stafford loans Perkins loans Direct Unsubsidized loans Direct Subsidized loans Non-federal aid opportunities come mostly in the form of institutional aid. Schools use information generatedby the FAFSA to award college-specific grants and scholarships. Private need-based scholarship programs also often require applicants to complete a FAFSA (for example, the Gates Millennium Scholarship). All in all, it's a really versatile application, and one of the most important parts of applying for financial aid for college. Now that you're excited about your own FAFSA let's talk about how to submit one! How Do You Submit a FAFSA? Follow these step-by-step instructions to successfully submit a FAFSA. Step 1: Check Your Deadlines There are different deadlines you should be aware of: federal and state.The deadline for federal funding for the 2015-2016 school year is June 30, 2016, whereas the deadline for 2016-2017 is June 30, 2017.You may be able to get federal aid even after you’ve finished your year at school (if you’re a current college student), so it could be worth your while to apply later on if you’ve already missed the state application window. Different states (if you also want to be considered for state funding) have different deadlines for applying for student aid. You can check the deadline for your state here. In general, though, it's better to apply well in advance of these deadlines. Someaid programs run out of funding earlier rather than later - like the Perkins Loan program - so try to get your FAFSA in as early as possible. The application openedJanuary 1 for the 2015-2016 academic year; schools won't use the information from your FAFSA until after you're admitted. You won't lose out on any opportunities if you don't submit your FAFSA on January 1, but try toget it in by early spring. Step 2: Gather All the Information You'll Need Perhaps the most tedious part of completing a FAFSA is hunting down all the relevant financial information you need for the application. If you gather this information ahead of time, though, sitting down to complete the actual app should be a cinch. Here's everything you need in order to fill out a complete FAFSA. From your own personal records, you'll need: Social Security Number Alien Registration Number (if you're not a US citizen) Most recent federal tax returns, W-2s, and other records of income Bank statements and investment records (if applicable) Records of untaxed income (if applicable) A FSA ID to sign electronically (if you're submitting the application online). You can create a FSA ID. Your parents' financial information is also considered when determining your aid eligibility, even if they won't be helping you pay for school. Because of this, you'll also need to gather all of the above information from your parents as well. Here'sexactly what you'll need from parents or guardians: If your parents are married, gather information for both of them. If your parent is widowed or single, you'll just need information from that one parent. If your widowed parent is currently remarried, you'll need information from your parent and your parent's spouse. If your parents are divorced or separated, you'll need information from your custodial parent (the parent you've lived with the most within the past year). If your parents have joint custody, and you spendtime between them equally, you need information from the parent who's supported you the most financially. Some FAFSA applicants qualify for what's called a dependency override - this is when parents' financial information is not taken into account when determining federal aid eligibility. Most of the time, this means that applicants are eligible for more aid. If you think you might qualify for a dependency override, you should gather any supporting documentation around those circumstances as well as any relevant financial information. Common override situations include being married, having kids, being in foster care, and being legally emancipated.Just answer questions about these circumstances honestly on your FAFSA - the application will process as incomplete, and you’ll need to follow up with the financial aid office of the school you’re seeking an aid package from. One last thing -If you’re a male between the ages of 18-25 and living in the US, you'll need to be registered for Selective Service in order to submit a FAFSA. Selective Service is essentially a registry of all men eligible to be called for a military draft in an emergency. You can registerin just a few minutes. Step 3: Choose Your Submission Method Got all that paperwork ready? Now comes the easy part - choosing how you'll submit your FAFSA. You have a couple of different options: electronic submission and paper submission. I'll discuss the pros and cons of both. Electronic Submission It's generally easier to submit your FAFSA online than it is to send in a paper copy. Just be aware that if you have a tight submission timeline, you should apply for a FSA ID for you and your parents ahead of time - you need a FSA ID to sign the FAFSA electronically, and it can take about threedays to come in. The electronic version of the app tends to guide you through the application process pretty well, and can even catch minor errors as you complete it. You'll also get fast results with this submission method - you'll receive a SAR (student aid report) containing the results of your FAFSA in about 3 days. Paper Submission Nothing against snails, but snail mail is not a good option if you're rushing to submit your FAFSA. Paper FAFSAs are a bit more cumbersome than the electronic version, take the longer to file, and are more prone to error - all of these factors will delay your application process. This is not a good option if you're tight on time. If you do want to submit a paper FAFSA, you can find copies at high school guidance offices, college financial aid offices, or at local libraries. You can also download and print the application yourself. Step 4: Set a Time to Complete the Application This is one application you don't want to procrastinate completing. As I mentioned earlier, you'll likely need a lot of information from your parents or guardians to properly fill out the application.The form will be much easier to complete if you can sit down with them, completing each section together. The electronic FAFSA should take about 1-2 hours, and the paper FAFSA a bit longer than that.You don’t need an accountant or financial aid consultant in order to fill out the FAFSA, but if you do have access to these resources, they should be able to assist you with any questions. Strategies for a Winning FAFSA Application From a wide variety of students, we've gathered a few tips that will max your reward. You absolutely must do these, or at least be aware for them. First, you should file earlybecause certain scholarships are first-come-first-serve. Applications become available much sooner than they're due, and you're well off using last years application as a mock up to submit as soon as possible. Second, it's important that you file even if you're not surewhether you'll get the aid. The amount of money is hugein comparison to the amount of time it'll take you. Some families earning up to even $200K/year will qualify for aid. Also, as with all forms, you must do your best to fill out the form completely. Technical glitches will delay or even stop your application. Double check every line, every blank for precision. This is a lot of money on the line here folks it's well worth your time. Finally, for many need base calculations, you'll do well to have as little savings in the child's name as possible. The child is expected to put a larger fraction of his/her savings into education versus the parents assets. Move money out of children's banks accounts. Likewise, parents will do well to reduce the savings amount that shows up on the file. Parents can do things like paying down debt to reduce their assets. Of course, be sure not to be penny-wise pound-foolish don't just go wasting money, but do understand the optics of where your money is will affect the aid given! What Do You Do After You Submit the FAFSA? The hard stuff is done - you've done the tedious work of gathering intel from financial records and answered each question on the application. There's not much left to do, but it's important to stay on top of tracking the status of your application. If there are any problems with the processing of your FAFSA, these next steps will help you get back on track in no time. Within 3-5 days, you will receive an email with directions to access your SAR, or Student Aid Report. The colleges you listed on your FAFSA will have access to your SAR shortly after you do.If your application were complete, your SAR would include an EFC, or Expected Family Contribution. The EFC is a number used by your school to calculate the amount of federal aid you are eligible to receive, not necessarily the amount of money your family will have to pay. If you're interested in learning more about the EFC and how it affects financial aid awards, check out our Pell Grant guide. You can check the status of your application (if there are any delays) by calling the Federal Student Aid Information Center (1.800.433.3243), or by logging in to the FAFSA website with your FSA ID. Your Financial Aid Package Your school will use the information generated from your FAFSA to generate a financial aid offer, which can include grants, loans, and scholarships.You’ll then make a decision about what aid to accept. If you’re offered grants, you should accept in pretty much all cases (it’s free money). It might be prudent to discuss with family about what loan offers you’d like to accept. For example, you should discuss whether you're happy with the loan terms and interest rates and if it's important that you take out those loans in order to afford college.The financial aid office at your school will explain how and when you’ll get any money awarded to you, and whether you will need to take any further steps. What's Next? The FAFSA is a particularly useful application - in submitting it, you'll be considered for the Pell Grant, Perkins loan, Direct Subsidized loan, and Direct Unsubsidized loan. Read more about each program by clicking the link. If you want to learn more about how much money you'll actually need for college (after you get any federal financial aid), read our guide on what college really costs. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Overview of the Glencoe Massacre

Overview of the Glencoe Massacre Conflict:Â  The Massacre at Glencoe was part of the repercussions of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Date:Â  The MacDonalds were attacked on the night of February 13, 1692. Pressure Building Following the ascent of Protestant William III and Mary II to the English and Scottish thrones, many clans in the Highlands rose up in support of James II, their recently deposed Catholic king. Known as Jacobites, these Scots fought to return James to the throne but were defeated by Government troops in mid-1690. In the wake of James defeat at the Battle of the Boyne in Ireland, the former king withdrew to France to begin his exile. On August 27, 1691, William offered the Jacobite Highland clans a pardon for their role in the uprising provided that their chiefs swore allegiance to him by the end of the year. This oath was to be given to a magistrate and those who failed to appear before the deadline were threatened with harsh repercussions from the new king. Concerned over whether to accept Williams offer, the chiefs wrote to James asking his permission. Delaying over a decision as he still hoped to regain his throne, the former king finally accepted his fate and granted it late that fall. Word of his decision did not reach the Highlands until mid-December due to particularly harsh winter conditions. Upon receiving this message, the chiefs quickly moved to obey Williams command. The Oath Alastair MacIain, the chief of the MacDonalds of Glencoe, set out on December 31, 1691, for Fort William where he intended to give his oath. Arriving, he presented himself to Colonel John Hill, the governor, and stated his intentions to comply with the kings wishes. A soldier, Hill stated that he was not permitted to accept the oath and told him to see Sir Colin Campbell, the sheriff of Argyle, at Inveraray. Before the MacIain departed, Hill gave him a letter of protection and a letter explaining to Campbell that MacIain had arrived before the deadline. Riding south for three days, MacIain reached Inveraray, where he was forced to wait three more days to see Campbell. On January 6, Campbell, after some prodding, finally accepted MacIains oath. Departing, MacIain believed that he had fully complied with the kings wishes. Campbell forwarded MacIains oath and the letter from Hill to his superiors in Edinburgh. Here they were examined and a decision was made not to accept MacIains oath without a special warrant from the king. The paperwork was not, however, sent on and a plot was hatched to eliminate the MacDonalds of Glencoe. The Plot Apparently led by Secretary of State John Dalrymple, who had a hatred of the Highlanders, the plot sought to eliminate a troublesome clan while making an example for the others to see. Working with Sir Thomas Livingstone, the military commander in Scotland, Dalrymple secured the kings blessing for taking measures against those who had not given the oath in time. In late January, two companies (120 men) of the Earl of Argyles Regiment of Foot were sent to Glencoe and billeted with the MacDonalds. These men were specifically chosen as their captain, Robert Campbell of Glenlyon, had seen his land plundered by the Glengarry and Glencoe MacDonalds after the 1689 Battle of Dunkeld. Arriving in Glencoe, Campbell and his men were warmly greeted by MacIain and his clan. It appears that Campbell was unaware of his actual mission at this point, and he and men graciously accepted MacIains hospitality. After peacefully coexisting for two weeks, Campbell received new orders on February 12, 1692, following the arrival of Captain Thomas Drummond. That No Man Escape Signed by Major Robert Duncanson, the orders stated, You are hereby ordered to fall upon the rebels, the MacDonalds of Glencoe, and put all to the sword under seventy. You are to have special care that the old fox and his sons do upon no account escape your hands. You are to secure all the avenues that no man escape. Pleased to have an opportunity to exact revenge, Campbell issued orders for his men to attack at 5:00 AM on the 13th. As dawn approached, Campbells men fell upon the MacDonalds in their villages of Invercoe, Inverrigan, and Achacon. MacIain was killed by Lieutenant John Lindsay and Ensign John Lundie, though his wife and sons managed to escape. Through the glen, Campbells men had mixed feelings about their orders with several warning their hosts of the coming attack. Two officers, Lieutenants Francis Farquhar, and Gilbert Kennedy refused to take part and broke their swords in protest. Despite these hesitations, Campbells men killed 38 MacDonalds and put their villages to the torch. Those MacDonalds who survived were forced to flee the glen and an additional 40 died from exposure. Aftermath As news of the massacre spread across Britain, an outcry rose against the king. While sources are unclear as to whether William knew the full extent of the orders he signed, he quickly moved to have the matter investigated. Appointing a commission of inquiry in early 1695, William awaited their findings. Completed June 25, 1695, the commissions report declared that the attack was murder, but exonerated the king stating that his instructions regarding repercussions did not extend to the massacre. The majority of the blame was placed on Dalrymple; however, he was never punished for his role in the affair. In the wake of the report, the Scottish Parliament requested an address to the king to be drawn up calling for the punishment of the conspirators and suggesting compensation to surviving MacDonalds. Neither occurred, though the MacDonalds of Glencoe were permitted to return to their lands where they lived in poverty due to the loss of their property in the attack.

Site Surveying Procedures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Site Surveying Procedures - Essay Example Uren. J. & W.F.P. (1999) Surveying device, consisting of a visual structure for collimating a measuring position, a driving unit for performing scanning in a dimension range said visual structure, a distance-measuring unit comprising a radiance gesture detachment measuring scheme, an image pickup unit for captivating an illustration in the size range, an icon meting out unit for performing reflection meting out to haul out edges from the image pulled out up, and a control mathematics operation unit for choosing a position near the periphery as a measuring position on the figure singled out for controlling supposed distance-measuring unit to carry out surveying procedure of the measuring position. Uren. J. & W.F.P. (1999) Three-dimensional data is normally surveyed on an object as this flat within a predetermined range; however the past has gripped this model of surveying on an object such as building within a predetermined range, there have been disadvantages in the past in that much time was required and there was limitation in acquired amount of the surveying data because an operator must determine a measuring point and surveying operation must be carried out one point after another. By the use of automatic instruments, surveying operation is automated, raster scanning is performed by determining a range with fine pitch, and a vast amount of 3-dimensional surveying data can be collected more quickly than in the operation by the surveying operator. A great number of measuring points are required and storage capacity o a storage device to store the data at the measuring points also must be large. In case unnecessary data is incorporated as measuring data, the continuity of the data may be lost, and the measurement must be repeatedly carried out in many cases. Tifadi, T. & Booth, D.W. (1997) To obtain the site configuration through the